13596pam a22002537a 45000030004000000050017000040080041000210200015000620200021000770400008000980820015001061000027001212450060001482600048002083000022002564400055002785000018003335051286500351650002513216650002013241650003013261700002413291700002713315OSt20250902173736.0220607b        |||||||| |||| 00| 0 eng d  a0198520859  a0198520867 (pbk)  cCUS00a598bSUT/B  aSutherland, William J.00aBird Ecology and Conservation: a Handbook of Techniques  aNew York :bOxford University Press,c2004.  axv,386p. :c24cm. 0aTechniques in ecology and conservation series ;v1  aFormerly CIP.  aContents


List of Contributors	xvii
1.	. Bird diversity survey methods	1
Colin}.Bibby
1.1	Introduction	1
1.2	Designing the fieldwork	3
1.3	Finding the birds	4
1.4	Standardizing the effort by time and space	6
1.5	Standardizing the effort by McKinnon's list method	7
1.6	Atlas studies	8
1.7	Estimating species richness	10
1.8	Conclusion	11
2.	Bird census and survey techniques	17
Richard D. Gregory, David W. Gibbons, and Paul F. Donald
2.1	Introduction	17
2.1.1	What are bird surveys and why do we need them?	17
2.1.2	What is monitoring and why do we need it?	18
2.1.3	Useful sources of information	19
2.1.4	Begin at the beginning	20
2.1	.5	Population size or index?	21
2.1.6	Survey boundaries	21
2.1.7	Census or sample?	22
2.1	.8	Sampling strategy	23
2.1.9	Sampling unit	23
2. 1.10 Field methods	23
2.1.11 Accuracy. precision, and bias	23
2.2	2 Sampling strategies	27
2.2.1	1	How many sampling units?	27
2.2.2	Which sampling units tocount?	27
2.2.3	Using stratification	29
2.3	Field methods	35

2.3.1	Mapping	36
2.3.2	Transects	38
2.3.3	Line transec ts	39
 
viii I Contents
 
2.3.4	Point transects	40
2.3.5	Rules for recording birds in the field	41
2.3.6	Choosing between line and point transects	41
2.3.7	Detection probabilities	42
2.3.8	Colonial birds	44
2.3.9	Counting roosts and flocks	45
2.3.10	Counting leks	46
2.3.11	Counting migrants	46
2.3.12	Capture  techniques	47
2.3.13	Tape playback	50
2.3.14	Vocal individuality	51
 
2.4 Conclusions	52
3.	Breeding biology	57
Rhys E. Green
3.1	I nt roduction	57
3.2	Choosing study areas	58
3.3	Measuring the success of individual breeding attempts	58
3.3.1	Finding and selecting nests	58
3.3.2	Recording the stage of a breeding attempt when it is located	60
3.3.3	Precautions to take so that nest s can be relocated for checking   61
3.3.4	Nest checking	62
3.3.5	Determination of chick survival for species with precocial young 64
3.3.6	[stimation of nest success from nest check data	66
3.4	Determina tion of the proximate causes of breeding failure	67
3.4.1	Signs left at the nest	67
3.4.2	Wax or plasticine eggs in the nests of wild birds	68
3.4.3	Cameras	69
3.4.4	Temperature loggers	70
3.5	Using artificial nests to measure nest success and causes of failure  71
3.6	Measuring annual prod uctivity	72
3.6.1	Whymeasure annual productivity?	72
3.6.2	Productivity from counts after the breeding season	74
3.6.3	Productivity from captures after the breeding season	74
3.6.4	Intensive studies of breeding	75
3.6.5	Indices of productivity from surveys during
the breeding season	76
3.6.6	Use of simulation models	76
3.7	Timing of breeding	76
3.8	Measurements of eggs and chicks	78
3.9	Proximate and ultimate causes of breeding failure	79
 
Contents I IX
3.10 Value of experiments to disentangle ultimate and
proximate causes of breeding failure	79
4.	Birds in the hand	85
Andrew Gosier
4.1	Introduction	85
4.2	Welfare,ethical,and legislative issues	86
4.3	3 Catching the birds	87
4.3.l The breeding season	89
4.3.2	Cage traps	90
4.3.3	Spring traps	90
4.3.4	A couple of nestbox traps	91
4.3.5	Noose-carpet traps	91
4.3.6	Mist-nets	92
4.3.7	Clap-net s and whoosh-nets	94
4.3.8	Canon-nets	94
4.3.9	9 Capture by hand	94
4.4	Individual marking	95
4 .5  Notes on bird handling	99
4.6	The bird at close quarters	100
4.6.l Ag e and molt	100
4.6.2  S ex	102
4.6.3	Weight	103
4.6.4	Color.for example . UV reflectance	103
4.7	Size	104
4.7. l  Body size	104
4.7.2	Wing	104
4.7.3	Tail	106
4.7.4	Tarsus	106
4.7.5	Tarsus -and-toe	108
4.7.6	Bill	108
4.7.7	Total-head	110
4.7.8	Claw. eye-ring. and other measures	110
4.8	Condition	110
4.8.l Asymmetry	110
4.8.2	Relative mass	111
4.8.3	Fat reserves	1ll
4.8.4	M uscle prot ein	113
4.8.5	5 Physiological measures	113
4.8.6	M olt and plumag e	113
4.8.7	Parasites	114
4.9	Biopsy	115
 
x \  Contents

5.	Estimating survival and movement
James D. Nichols, William L. Kendall, and Michael C. Runge
5.1	I ntroduction
5.2	Tag type and subsequent encounters
5.3	Survival rates
5.3.1	Radio-telemetry
5.3.2	Capture-recapture/  resighting
5.3.3	Band recovery
5.4	Movement
5.4.1	Radio-telemetry
5.4.2	Capture-reca  pture/resighting
5.4.3 Band recovery
5.5	Summary and general recommendations
 


119

119
120
120
120
124
127
129
129
131
133
134
 

 
6.	Radio-tagging
Robert Kenward
6.1	Introduct ion
6.2	Choice of techniques
6.2.1	Constraints on radio tagging
6.2.2	Applications and advantages
6.2.3	Considerations for tag attachment
6.3	Forward planning
6.3.1	Equipment
6.3.2	M obile tracking
6.3.3	Software
6.4	Approaches
6.4.1	Pilot studies
6.4.2	Recording locations
6.4.3	Using location data
6.4.4	Demography
6.5	The future
 
141

141
142
142
143
145
148
148
150
150
151
151
152
154
155
156
 

 
7.	Migration
Susanne Akesson and Anders Hedenstrom
7.1	Introduction
7.2	Migration systems
7.2.1	M ark-recapture
7.2.2	M orphology
7.2.3	Genetic markers
7.2.4	Stable isotopes
7.3	Migration behavior and strategies
7.3.1	Counting and observing migrants
 
161

161
161
162
162
163
163
165
165
 


7.3.2	Tracking migrants
7.3.3	Remote sensing: infrared device
7.3.4	Remote sensing: radar
7.3.5	Stopover
7.4	Physiology of migration
7.4.1	Body composition
7.4.2	Energetics
7.4.3	Endocrinology
7.5	Flightin wind tunnels
7.6	Orientation and navigation
7.6.1	Emlen funnels
7.6.2	M anipulating sensory input
7.6.3	Displacement experiments
7.6.4	Selection experime nts
7.6.5	Circular statistics
7.7	Modeling migration
7.8	Concluding remarks

8.	Information from dead and dying birds
John E. Cooper
8.1	Introduction
8.1.1	Terminology-definitions and explanation
8.1.2	M ethodology -an overview of techniques
8.2	The postmortem examination
8.3	Health and safety
8.4	Postmortem examinations (necropsies)
8.5	Laboratory investigations
8.6	Interpretation of findings
8.7	Legal aspects 8.8 Conclusions

9.	Tech niques in physiology and genetics
Alistair  Dawson
 
Contents  I xi
166
167
167
169
169
169
170
171
171
172
172
172
173
174
174
175
176

179

179
181
181
183
185
187
194
199
201
203

211
 
9.1	Introduction	211
9.2	Sampling techniques	211
9.2.1	Ethical considerations	211
9.2.2	Legal considerations -catcl1ing wild birdsfor research	212
9.2.3	Legal considerations -scientific experiments on birds	213
9.2.4	Housing and husbandry	216
9.2.5	Blood sampling	217
9.2.6	Administration of substances	218
9.2.7	Anestl1esia	219
 



xii I Contents
 

 




9.2.8	Implant s	219
9.2.9	Laparotomy	220
 
9.3	Ecotoxicology	221
9.4	Endocrinology	222
9.5	Energetics	224
9.6	Molecular genetics	225
10. Diet and foraging behavior	233
William). Sutherland
10.l Introduction	233
10.2	Diet composition	233
10.2.l	Direct observation	233
10.2.2	Nest observations	235
10.2.3	Remains and signs	235
10.2.4	Dropping analysis	236
10.2.5	Pellet analysis	239
10.2.6	Stomach analysis	239
10.2.7	Direct observations of crop	240
10.2.8	Regurgitates	240
10.2.9	Cafeteria  experiments	240
10.2.10	Morphology	240
10.2.11	Neck ligatures	241
10.2.12	Emetics and flushing	241
10.2.13	Isotope differences between habitats	241
10.3	Determi ning prey size	242
10.3.1	Direct observation of prey size	242
10.3.2	Determining size from prey remains	242
10.3.3	Determining prey size from regurgitates	242
10.3.4	M easuring fragments in pellets, droppings. or stomach	242
10.4	Prey quality	243
10.4.1	Energy content	243
10.4.2	Prey digestibility	244
10.5	Foraging behavior	244
10.5.1	Time budgets	244
10.5.2	Time spent feeding per day	245
10.5.3	Night observations	245
10.5.4	Handling time	246
10.5.5	Intake rate and the functional response	246
10.5.6	Interference	247
10.5.7	Depletion	247
10.5.8	Prey a vailability	248
10.5.9	Exclosures	248
10.5.10	M ate provisioning and brood provisioning rates	249





 
 



11. Habitat assessment	
Contents	I xiii
251
William). Sutherland and Rhys E. Green		
11.1  Introduction		251
11 .1.1 Habitat associations		251
11.1.2 Documenting changes over time		252
11 .2 Protocols		252
11 .3 Physical environment		254
11.3.1 Temperature and thermoregulation		254
11.3.2 Rainfall and soil wetness		255
11.3.3 Slope. aspect. elevation. and topography		255
11.3.4 'Tfpe. chemistry. and penetrability of soils		255
11.3.5 Waterchemistry		256
11.4 Vegetation		257
11.4.1 M apping of broad habitat types		257
11.4.2 Species composition of vegetation		258
11 .4.3 Vegetation architecture		258
11 .5 Quantifying habitat selection		260
11.5.1	Comparing the relative abundance of birds or records of tracked birds in each of several habitats with the relative
areas of the habitats available	260
11.5.2	Relating numbers or densities of individuals or records of tracked birds in spatial units to the habitat composition
of those units	262
11 .5.3 Comparison of habitat at places used by birds with that at places that are representative of the study area or
known tobe unused	262
11 .6  Food abundance and availability	263
11.7 Predator abundance	265
11 .8 Disturba nce	266
12.	Conservation management of endangered birds	269
Carl C.Jones
12.1	Introduction	269
12.2	Process in the restoration of endangered species	269
12.2.1	Step one: knowyour species	270
12.2.2	Step two: diagnose causes of population decline
and test remedial action	270
12.2.3	Stage three: intensive management	271
12.2.4	Stagefour: population management	271
12.2.5	Stage five: monitoring	271
12.3	Broad population management approaches	272
12.3.1	Supplemental feeding	273
12.3.2	Enhancing nest-sites and the provision of nest-boxes	274
 
xiv  I Contents
 
12.3.3	Disease control
12.3.4	Predator control
 
277
278
 
12.4	Intensive management of focal pairs
12.4.1	Close guarding and monitoring of nest s
12.4.2	Clutch and brood manipulations
12.5	Reintroduction and tra nslocations
12.5.1	Reintroduction
12.5.2	Translocations
12.6	Supportive management for bird restoration projects
12.6.1	Role of captive facilities
12.6.2	Model or surrogate species
12.6.3	Artificial incubation and hand-rearing
12.7	Integra ted management
12.8	Discussion
 
280
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288
288
290
291
291
292
292
293
293
 

 
13.	Exploitation
Michael C. Runge, William L. Kendall, and James D. Nichols
13.1	I ntroduction: assessment of exploitation
13.1.1	Taking a conservative approach
13.1.2	Minimum estimates of population size
13.1.3	Estimates of harvest levels
 
303

303
303
303
304
 
13.1.4	Population models and associated param eters	304
13.1.5	The use of trend s	304

13.2 Theoretical basis for sustainable exploitation	305
13.2.1 Logistic growth model with perfect information	305
13.2.2 Incorporating uncertainty: potential biological  removal	
307
13.2.3 A note about other methods of assessing sustainability	309
13.3 Harvest control and managemen t objectives	310
13.3.1 Harvest management strategies	310
13.3.2 H arvest management objectives	311
13.4 Assessing harvest levels	312
13.4.1 Total harvest (H ) versus harvest rate (h)	3l2
13.4.2	Harvest estimation when harvest is legal and observable	312
13.4.3	Harvest estimation when harvest is illegal	314
13.4.4	Measuring harvest rate	315
13.5	Assessing population size	316
13.5.1	Overview	316
13.5.2	Coping with uncertainty	316
 
13.6	Assessing population dynamics
13.6.1	M aximum growth rate (rmoJ
13.6.2	Other asp ects of density depend ence
13.6.3	Other driving forces
13.6.4	M odel structure
 
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317
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320
 




13.7   Addressing uncertainty	Contents	I xv
322
13.7.1 M otivation		322
13.7.2  Management experiments		322
13.7.3  Ada ptive management		323
14. Habitat management		329
M alcolm Ausden		
14.1	I  ntroduction	329
14.2	Deciding wha t to do	330
14.3	Monitoring	333
14.4	General principles of managing habitats for birds	334
	14.4.1 Factors influencing habitat use by birds	334
	14.4.2 Taking account of the requirement s of non-bird species	335
	14.4.3 Controlling unwanted plants	336
	14.4.4 Taking account of predicted climate change	337
14.5	Managing grasslands	337
	14.5.1 Introduction	337
	14.5.2 Effects of cutting and burning on sward condition	338
	14.5.3 Effects of grazing on sward condition	339
	14.5.4 Minimizing nest and chick loss during management	341
	14.5.5 Using fertilizer	342
	14.5.6 Hydrology of wet grasslands	343
14.6	Managing dwarf shrub habita ts	344
14.7	Managing forests and scrub	345
	14.7.1 Introduction	345
	14.7.2  Grazing and browsing	347
	14.7.3 Burning	348
	14.7.4 Planting and harvesting regimes	349
	14.7.5 Thinning and creating gaps	350
	14.7.6 Increasing the quantity of dead wood	351
14.8	Ma naging deep water	351
14.9	Ma naging wetlands
14.9.1 M anipulating the pro portions of open water.	352
	ruderal vegetation. and swamp	352
	14.9.2 Increasing food abundancefor birds in shallow freshwater	353
	14.9.3 Increasing food abundance for birds in shallow brackish	
	and saline water	355
	14.9.4 Increasing accessibility of food for birds in shallow water	356
	14.9.5 Providing islands and raft s	357
	14.9.6 M anaging reedbeds	357
	14.9.7 Scrub	360
	14.9.8 Wet woodlands	360
14.10	Managing intertidal habitats	360
14.11	Managing arable land and hedgerows	361

 0aBirdsxConservation. 0aBirdsxEcology. 0aOrnithologyxMethodology.  aNewton, IaneEditor  aGreen, Rhys E.eEditor